Notion Of Aura Used By Walter Benjamin Cultural Studies Essay

Notion Of Aura Used By Walter Benjamin Cultural Studies Essay Walter Benjamin was a Jewish intellect who lived in Germany during a period of anti-semitic feeling and WWII. His work was influenced by Jewish mysticism and historical materialism. Both the era in which he lived and his religion strongly impacted on his thinking. He is associated with the Frankfurt school. The Frankfurt School refers to the work of those philosophers, cultural critics and social scientists who belonged to, or were associated with, the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research (Edgar et al 1999 p129) The institute developed a Marxist approach which it is now associated with and no doubt contributed to Benjamins historical materialism. In The work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction Benjamin addresses the ways in which mechanical reproduction spoils the uniqueness and authenticity of the work of art. He called this uniqueness and authenticity the aura. Aura is the particular power which an image or object has by virtue of its singularity, authenticity, and embeddedness in the fabric of tradition (Gilloch 2002 p182) Benjamin believes the aura of art has changed due to mechanical reproduction and sees the increasing reproducibility of art as directly related to the strength of its aura. Art in the age of mechanical reproduction explores the differences and consequences of the politicisation of art and the aestheticisation of politics. Benjamin describes works of art and some natural objects as having an aura. By aura he meant the trait of authenticity and uniqueness that constituted the artworks distance from everyday life, the notion that art was something that required contemplation and immersion on the part of the spectator (Gentz p116) A natural object such as a mountain could be said to have an aura because it has a personality and life independent of us. It is distant, is the only one of its kind and is tied to its surroundings and location. Similarly, a masterful painting is considered unique in that no person can reproduce it with complete accuracy. Even the most perfect reproduction of a work of art is lacking in one element: its presence in time and space, its unique existence at the place where it happens to be. This unique existence of the work of art determined the history to which it was subject throughout the time of its existence. (Benjamin p4) The paintings value comes largely from its exclusivity . A painting may be called permanent partly because museums, galleries etc. are devoted to keeping them intact and partly because history insures that the artists identity and the contextual significance of the work of art survive through the ages. But in another, less well-known sense, aura refers to the investing of an object with human qualities and emotions. We imagine not that we are looking at an inanimate thing, but that this thing can look back at us. We become caught up in a reciprocal relationship with it, just as with another person (Butler 2002) One could question whether uniqueness or authenticity could really be used as According to Benjamin the use of technology such as lithography changed the way in which art is produced and consumed. With lithography the technique of reproduction reached an essentially new stage (Benjamin p3). Lithography enabled many copies to be printed and expanded the potential audience who could view the art considerably. After this, the introduction of the illustrated newspaper and later, photography increased the rate of production and the size of the audience who consumed it. The use of photography was a turning point in the history of artistic aura. But only a few decades after its invention, lithography was surpassed by photography (Benjamin p3). After this the introduction of film was a further step towards mass communication. These technologies enabled art forms to be enjoyed by the masses. Art was no longer reserved for the wealthy and inaccessible to the general public. Film created even greater changes as it allows performances to be recorded and repeatedly enjoyed . Mechanical reproduction, therefore, has brought great changes to the consumption and availability of art. Both film and photography completely changed the idea of what art is. These changes in the production of art are what, according to Benjamin, spoiled the authenticity and uniqueness of the work of art i.e. its aura. For the first time in world history, mechanical reproduction emancipates the work of art from its parasitical dependence on ritual (Benjamin p9) He also believes that a work of art has now become a thing that is designed to be reproduced From a photographic negative, for example, one can make any number of prints; to ask for the authentic print makes no sense (Benjamin p9). However, no matter how perfect a reproduction may be, it will always lack a place in time and space and unique existence. Benjamin gravely disapproves of the lack of history that mechanical reproduction allows. He believes that without a testimony to history the aura of an object is destroyed. A plurality of copies is substituted for a unique existence. The aura of the object is destroyed through mechanical reproduction and this coupled with the ability to meet the perso n in his own environment are the two main reasons for the shattering of tradition that Benjamin speaks of and both are connected to the mass movement. Prior to the age of modernity, art was predominantly religious. Art of this type has what Benjamin describes as cult value. For Benjamin, works of art in our society often have with them a specific cult value, or value that is not subscribed to the artworks themselves, but, rather to the context in which the artworks were either constructed or situated (Cala 2010, p283) He explains that this form of value is no longer relevant, as art produced using modern methods of production no longer have an authentic element. For example, From a photographic negative, for example, one can make any number of prints; to ask for the authentic print makes no sense (Benjamin p9) The exhibition value of art is emphasised in the modern age . Benjamin feels that art is no longer produced for arts sake but for political reasons. Film and photography could be said to be prime examples of this. Reproducibility leads to the demise of the artworks cult value. It is no longer hidden away in those hallowed spa ces of bourgeois culture frequented by the privileged few (Gilloch 2002 p185) The destruction of the aura with regard to film is as a result of two distinct advances. They are the relationship between the actor and the audience and the mass nature of film. In film, the actor does not perform to an audience and the performance does not occur in one long piece but in scenes that can be recorded in any particular order and put together at a later time. The audience is distanced from the actor and Benjamin says that they take on the role of a critic as there is no personal contact with the actor This permits the audience to take the position of a critic, without experiencing any personal contact with the actor. The audiences identification with the actor is really an identification with the camera. Consequently the audience takes the position of the camera; its approach is that of testing. This is not the approach to which cult values may be exposed (Benjamin p13). The audience do not stand back and admire this art form and therefore it can be said that film has a ltered arts very nature and in this way it promotes the detachment of film from the realm of the beautiful semblance which, so far, had been taken to be the only sphere where art could thrive (Benjamin p15) The mechanical reproduction of film changes many of the original notions on art. One of the most radical ideas contributed by film is the promotion of a revolutionary criticism of traditional concepts of art (Benjamin p15) In Benjamins mind, the production of film is the ultimate expression of the aestheticsation of politics as it was revolutionary and changed the way in which people interpreted and saw the outside world. The invention of film allowed people to escape for a short time ultimately masking them from reality. Benjamin realized that film had the power to be used for political purposes and that it was well suited to propaganda. Film had the power to attract and hold the attention of the audience in order to shape their beliefs on the dominant political ideology without questioning. Its apparatus is perfectly suited for propaganda in both a positive and negative way. In fascism, film was used to celebrate the cult leader with whom the masses could identify without being urged to denounce social inequality. (Van den Braembussche 2009 p189) Benjamin also discusses another way in which mechanical reproduction affects society by discussing the change in the social status gap. Before mechanical reproduction a work of art would be a singular object unique by its individuality. Important works of art would be kept in private dwellings by someone of high social status and other places such as cathedrals, castles or private museums. These works of art would be inaccessible to anyone in the lower classes who were considered not worthy of viewing them. These private works of art defined the owners status due to the exclusivity of the art and its exhibition value. Due to mechanical reproduction the value of art took a dramatic shift. A piece of art was valued by its uniqueness and its aura. Today, an image is valued not in its uniqueness but rather in its aesthetic, cultural and social worth. With the introduction of mechanical reproduction the social gap between those who viewed art and those who didnt began to close. There was an increased circulation of images and documents that were very rare and used by the higher classes. Once mechanical reproduction became widespread these rare images and diagrams were shared by all classes increasing public education and thus closing the status gap. Technology meant that art could be reproduced and consumed by the masses, which Benjamin saw as a democratising feature. Benjamin envisioned a time when art was no longer reserved for the elite, but could be enjoyed, discussed and interpreted by anyone (Gentz p116) Benjamin influenced the work of Theodore Adorno. Adorno also wrote about art as having an aura. Adorno agrees with Benjamin in some regards such as that the aura has declined in this age of mechanical reproduction and that the aura of art is declining in the modern era. However he disagrees with Benjamin in other areas such as the reason for this decline. Adorno criticised Benjamins The work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction in a letter he wrote to Benjamin. He critisised the manner in which Benjamin used his concept of aura. Adorno criticises the way Benjamin transfers the concept of magical aura to the autonomous work of art' (Van den Braembussche p189 ) Adorno thought that Benjamin made it appear that only autonomous works of art are characterised by aura.

Resources and Development in an economy :: Economics

Resources and Development in an economy Resources and Development a) Resources influence the structure and progress of an economy. If something is considered a resource it is potentially of economic benefit. However there are three differing types of resources, and it is the relative abundance of all these that dictates the economic structure. It is debatable whether the presence of one resource, e.g. Coal (a natural resource), leads in itself to economic sustainability and strength. There are human, capital and natural resources. Human resources represent the quality and quantity of the workforce and is influenced by factors such as education and demographics. Capital resources come in the form of accumulated wealth in assets such as industry or infrastructure. Natural resources, such as oil, coal or timber, are primary materials which are of utility to man, which man has the willingness (i.e. it will either be of use in other industrial processes or will gain a profit), and ability to exploit. These three factors combine to provide the backbone to an economy, although they often rely on one another, especially the industries on the workforce, to function properly. Natural resources are arguably the 'kick off' necessity of the other two, and is more complex as there are many types of natural resource, both infinite such as timber, and finite such as crude oil. There is therefore the issue of decision-making regarding sustainability, and the appropriateness of using a particular resource for a particular purpose, when a suitable replacement is available, and this often alters which natural materials are regarded as resources. b) Logic would suggest that the presence of natural resources in a country has a positive relationship with its economic development. There are many examples that support this theory, such as with the most developed countries of Western Europe, and renowned anthropologists such as Rostow assume it to be true. However there is well supported evidence that natural resources are not at all essential for economic development, and with the global political structure having evolved the way it has, anthropologists such a Gunder-Frank suggest that natural resources can be more of a hindrance than an advantage regarding the improvement of an economy. In his model for economic development Rostow assumes that natural resources are necessary for economic progression through the 'preconditions for takeoff' and 'takeoff' stages of development. This was originally true in the case of the first industrialised countries in the 18th century. The development of the UK's wool, and later coal industries, directly triggered the processes that have led to the UK's developed economy today. However Gunder-Frank would argue that as soon as the first industrialised nations became rich and began looking to exploit wealth

Joining Sports

Below is a free essay on â€Å"Persuasive Essay On Joining Sports/clubs† from Anti Essays, your source for free research papers, essays, and term paper examples. Teenagers are blessed with the gift of limitless free time. Most of them fill that time slot after school with video games, television, and other distracting technologies. However, there is a much more beneficial option for after school activities. That option is joining co-curricular sports or clubs. These activities have proven benefits, and every student should join one.Sports are a excellent way to stay in shape. MayoClinic says that teenagers require at least an hour of physical activity per day. Physical activity is important for a healthy lifestyle. Unfortunately, more and more adolescents are neglecting their health every year. As of 2001, 25% of American children are obese. (Anne Collins). According to Anne Collins, new studies suggest one in four overweight children are showing early signs of type II diabete s and 60% already have one risk factor for heart disease.America's youth is becoming substantially less healthy, but participating in a sport will decrease their chances of becoming obese. Joining either a sport or club will compel teens to become more sociable, and they can even make new friends. Dr. Phil himself says that a healthy social life helps keep teens happy, and they become less susceptible to depression or suicide. 5,000 teens die of suicide per year (Kidshealth. org). Suicide is the third-leading cause of death for 15- to 24-year-olds, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, surpassed only by accidents and homicide.Sports or clubs can strengthen social skills and friendships. Making new friends is always a positive benefit any day. It is proven that teenagers will be less likely to use drugs while enrolled in co-curricular activities (Athletic Association of Western Universities). The terrible reality is that 50% of teens use drugs regularly (Teendr ugabuse. com). Alcohol is the easiest drug for teens to obtain, sadly, alcohol kills 6 ? times more teenagers than all other illicit drugs combined†¦

Effective Bilingual Education Models in K- Classrooms - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 660 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2019/10/30 Category Education Essay Level High school Tags: Bilingual Education Essay Did you like this example? Definition of Bilingual Education The term bilingual education is used to refer to instructional programs that provide students with an education in two languages (Freeman, Freeman, Ramirez p. 60). When de? ¬?ning bilingual education in K-12 classrooms, it is important to understand its goals. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Effective Bilingual Education Models in K- Classrooms" essay for you Create order According to Stephen Krashen, the first goal is to teach students English, and the second goal is to nurture students native language development. To be effective, well-designed bilingual education programs require researched based models with adequately trained teachers and staff to execute them. Schools that consider implementing a bilingual education program put all students in a favorable position to not only become academically successful, but also become marketable for future careers. Bilingual Education Program Models The two-way dual language enrichment model (DLE) is one that is noted for its effectiveness in closing the achievement gap for ELLs. Students learn content together in two different ways using two languages. For example, if my middle school had six ELLs then it is possible that six English-dominant students would form a two-way DLE classroom. In these programs, though, there can be considerable variation in the ethnicity and race of the native English speakers. N ative English speakers may include all races except Hispanics. Often, students come from different social and economic backgrounds. ELLs are in a heterogeneous environment where they learn from their native English speaking peers as well as achieve high academic success from a curriculum taught 50% in English and 50% in a second language. The one-way dual language enrichment model (DLE) is similar to the two-way DLE model. It only differs in the demographics of the student body in the classroom. One example that is widely used is the Gomez and Gomez model. Specifically, if my school had only Spanish speaking ELLs, the students would begin literacy instruction in their first language but always study math in English and science and social studies in Spanish. Time is allotted for music and art which would be taught by alternating languages each day (Freeman, Freeman, Ramirez p. 71). In addition, I found the language of the day feature to be of great importance because ELLs can continue to build a rich vocabulary that encourages bilingualism. If they encounter staff members, they could discuss simple topics such as the schools announcements. This model also promotes high academic achievement. Although I dont currently serve an ELL population at my school, I prefer this model because of the area in which I live the possib ility of Spanish speaking students would most likely be the case rather than any other language. My goal would be to provide an environment that is non-threatening in which the ELL feels comfortable in taking risks, and build on the ELLs experiences to maximize academic success. Benefits of Bilingual Education In a society that is increasingly bilingual, school districts must realize the benefits of establishing these programs as early as Kindergarten. Foreign language is a core high school graduation requirement in the state of Arkansas; however, it would be more valuable if students were exposed to a second language at an early age. How would this impact their future? Students would become proficient in two languages before high school graduation. I firmly stand on the mission that I teach to produce lifelong learners. This topic has given me a new outlook on the phrase, college and career ready. I now see how students could become great assets to major companies if they were active participants in a K-12 bilingual education program. With this in mind, if more bilingual programs were implemented in school districts, students would have a competitive academic advantage. Exposing students to new concepts in a second language enhances their knowledge as well as broaden their perspective of different cultures. Resources Freeman, Y. S., Freeman, D. E., Ramirez, R. (2008). Diverse learners in the mainstream classroom: Strategies for supporting all students across content areas: English language learners, students with disabilities, gifted/talented students. Bilingual Education (pp. 59-76). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.